Resumen Introducción: Las parasitosis son un problema de salud pública mundial por su alta prevalencia en países en vías de desarrollo, su persistencia en países desarrollados debido principalmente por la migración de personas, y por su morbi-mortalidad asociada. Objetivo: Determinar las defunciones causadas por parasitosis endémicas e importadas en Chile, según región, sexo, grupo etario, procedencia urbana/rural y nivel educacional, y estimar tasas de mortalidad. Método: Estudio de base poblacional y serie de tiempo de mortalidad (1997 a 2020). Los análisis estadísticos fueron realizados mediante programas Excel y R Studio, cálculo de χ2, valor p < 0,05. Resultados: 2.413 muertes fueron causadas por parásitos, 65,1% por protozoos, 33% por helmintos y 1,9% por artrópodos. La tasa promedio de mortalidad nacional fue de 0,6 por cada 100 mil habitantes. Las principales causas de fallecimiento fueron: enfermedad de Chagas (63,6%), hidatidosis (24,3%) y cisticercosis (8,1%). La mayoría de los fallecidos pertenecía a la Región de Coquimbo. La edad promedio de defunción fue de 74, 62 y 67 años para muertes por protozoos, helmintos y artrópodos, respectivamente. Las defunciones ocurrieron mayormente en hombres. La mayoría provenía de zona urbana y poseían un nivel educacional bajo. Conclusiones: La enfermedad de Chagas es la principal causa de muerte por parasitosis en Chile.

Abstract Background: Parasites are a public health problem due to their high prevalence in developing countries, their persistence in developed countries mainly due to the migration of people, and their associated morbidity and mortality. Aim: To determine the deaths in Chile caused by endemic and imported parasites; according to region, sex, age group, urban-rural origin and educational level, and mortality rates. Method: Population-based study, times series of mortality (1997 to 2020). Statistical analysis was performed using Excel and R Studio programs, calculation of χ2, p value < 0.05. Results: 2,413 deaths occurred due to parasites, 65.1% by protozoa, 33% by helminths and 1.9% by arthropods. The average national mortality rate was 0.6 per 100.000 inhabitants. The main causes of death were Chagas disease (63.6%), hydatidosis (24.3%) and cysticercosis (8.1%). Most of the deceased belonged to the Coquimbo Region. The mean age of death was 74, 62 and 67 years old for deaths from protozoa, helminths and arthropods, respectively. Deaths occurred mostly in men. Most came from urban areas and had a low educational level. Conclusions: Chagas disease is the main cause of death from parasites in Chile.

BACKGROUND Vector transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi appears to be interrupted in Chile; however, data show increasing incidence of Chagas' disease, raising concerns that there may be a reemerging problem. OBJECTIVE To estimate the actual risk in a changing world it is necessary to consider the historical vector distribution and correlate this distribution with the presence of cases and climate change. METHODS Potential distribution models of Triatoma infestans and Chagas disease were performed using Maxent, a machine-learning method. FINDINGS Climate change appears to play a major role in the reemergence of Chagas' disease and T. infestans in Chile. The distribution of both T. infestans and Chagas' disease correlated with maximum temperature, and the precipitation during the driest month. The overlap of Chagas' disease and T. infestans distribution areas was high. The distribution of T. infestans, under two global change scenarios, showed a minimal reduction tendency in suitable areas. MAIN CONCLUSION The impact of temperature and precipitation on the distribution of T. infestans, as shown by the models, indicates the need for aggressive control efforts; the current control measures, including T. infestans control campaigns, should be maintained with the same intensity as they have at present, avoiding sylvatic foci, intrusions, and recolonisation of human dwellings.

Chagas disease remains highly prevalent in Chile, especially between the regions of Arica and Parinacota, and Coquimbo. Since 1999 it is considered that in Chile the vector transmission was interrupted. Under this premise, the epidemiological dynamics should be changing. We analyzed the evolution of the prevalence of Chagas’ disease analyzing 64,995 xenodiagnosis performed in the laboratory of Parasitology of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Chile between 1949 and 2014. The evolution of the mortalities and incidences from the databases of the Ministry of Health in the periods in which it was analyzed. The rates of domiciliary infestation and the number of vector insects sent to the Public Health Institute and its trypano-triatomine indices were also analyzed. The prevalence of Chagas’ disease in inhabitants of risk areas remained stable in this period as well as mortality. The incidence rate shows a progressive increase with a tendency towards stabilization. A significant decrease in sampling effort was found, declining by two orders of magnitude, especially since 2000. The progressive increase in morbidity had no clear relation to the interruption of the vector chain nor to the greater diagnostic effort occurred in 2009, since it was evident from before. While home infestation declines, reports of intrusion of solitary individuals and wild foci of T. infestans have increased. Trypano-triatomine indices were maintained with high values in all vector species. This study shows a worrying situation, for while on the one hand the interruption of the vector transmission and improvement in the research systems is emphasized, the concern for this disease seems to be decreasing with less diagnostic efforts and lower education at the higher level, and by the other hand the numbers show that the problem if it is not increasing, at least maintains its careless historical magnitude.

Resumen Introducción: La enfermedad de Chagas sigue siendo altamente prevalente en Chile, especialmente entre las regiones de Arica y Parinacota y de Coquimbo. Desde 1999 se considera que en Chile se encuentra interrumpida la transmisión vectorial. Bajo esta premisa, la dinámica epidemiológica se debiera estar modificando. Objetivo: Analizar la evolución temporal de la enfermedad de Chagas en Chile Material y Métodos: Analizamos la evolución de la prevalencia de la enfermedad de Chagas a través del análisis de resultados de 64.995 xenodiagnós-ticos realizados en el laboratorio de Parasitología de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile, entre 1949 y 2014. Se estudió la evolución de las mortalidades e incidencias disponibles en las bases de datos del Ministerio de Salud en los períodos en que fue posible. Se analizaron las tasas de infestación domiciliaria y el número de insectos vectores enviados al Instituto de Salud Pública y sus índices tripano-tratominos. Resultados: La prevalencia de la enfermedad de Chagas en habitantes de zonas de riesgo se mantuvo estable en este período, al igual que la mortalidad. La tasa de incidencia muestra un incremento progresivo con tendencia a la estabilización. Se encontró un significativo decrecimiento del esfuerzo de muestreo, decayendo dos órdenes de magnitud, especialmente desde 2000. El aumento progresivo de la morbilidad no tiene clara relación con el corte de la cadena vectorial ni con el mayor esfuerzo diagnóstico ocurrido en 2009, ya que era evidente desde antes. Mientras que la infestación domiciliaria disminuye, han aumentado los reportes de intromisión de individuos solitarios y los focos silvestres de T. infestans. Los índices tripano triatominos se mantienen con valores altos en todas las especies vectores. Discusión: Este estudio muestra una situación preocupante, ya que mientras por una parte se destaca el corte de la transmisión vectorial y mejora en los sistemas de pesquisa, la preocupación por esta enfermedad parece ir decreciendo con menores esfuerzos diagnósticos y menor enseñanza a nivel superior, y por otra parte los números muestran que el problema si es que no está aumentando, al menos mantiene su descuidada magnitud histórica.

Myiasis is an infestation of tissues and organs of humans and animals by Diptera larvae (flies, horseflies, mosquitoes). They are located at different body sites, and classified clinically as cutaneous, visceral and cavitary. We report a 26-year-old woman with a history of seborrheic dermatitis and recent trip to Brazil. She presented with a seven days history of suppurating wounds in the parieto-occipital area of the scalp. At physical examination we found three ulcers of approximately 1.5 cm each, with multiple mobile larvae inside. The obtained larvae were analyzed, identifying Cochliomyia hominivorax larvae at L2 and L3 stages. The patient was managed successfully with oral antimicrobials and local cleansing. The screwworm Cochliomyia hominivorax in our country is rare. Known risk factors are wounds, poor personal hygiene, extreme ages, psychiatric disorders, presence of specific dermatosis such as psoriasis and seborrheic dermatitis, among others.

Human fascioliasis is a parasitic zoonosis that affects the liver of human and herbivorous animals. In chronic cases, its diagnosis is confirmed by direct visualization of parasitic eggs in stool examination, by positive testing for Fasciola hepatica antigens in stools, or by direct observation of parasites by endoscopic retrograde cholangiography or surgery. In acute cases, serological reactions as immunoblothing or detection of parasite antigens in the blood are useful. The treatment of choice is triclabendazole. However, parasite resistance in animals, as well as in man, has been reported to this drug. We report four patients in whom the parasitic infection persisted despite a course of treatment with triclabendazole.

We evaluate the elimination of the microscopic stage of conventional xenodiagnosis (XD) to optimize the parasitological diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi in chronic Chagas disease. To this purpose we applied under informed consent two XD cages to 150 Chilean chronic chagasic patients. The fecal samples (FS) of the triatomines at 30, 60 and 90 days post feeding were divided into two parts: in one a microscopic search for mobile trypomastigote and/or epimastigote forms was performed. In the other part, DNA extraction-purification for PCR directed to the conserved region of kDNA minicircles of trypanosomes (PCR-XD), without previous microscopic observation was done. An XD was considered positive when at least one mobile T. cruzi parasite in any one of three periods of incubation was observed, whereas PCR-XD was considered positive when the 330 bp band specific for T. cruzi was detected. 25 of 26 cases with positive conventional XD were PCR-XD positive (concordance 96.2%), whereas 85 of 124 cases with negative conventional XD were positive by PCR-XD (68.5%). Human chromosome 12 detected by Real-time PCR used as exogenous internal control of PCR-XD reaction allowed to discounting of PCR inhibition and false negative in 40 cases with negative PCR-XD. Conclusion: PCR-XD performed without previous microscopic observation is a useful tool for detection of viable parasites with higher efficiency then conventional XD.

Efficient drugs against Chagas' disease must have an effect on the amastigote forms or intracellular reproduction elements of Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi). Trypomastigote and epimastigote forms derive from the former and their response to medications is less marked. The only drugs used in humans are nifurtimox (NF) and benznidazole (BNZ). Other useful medications are allopurinol and itraconazole. NF acts producing free radicals and BNZ inhibits the synthesis of macromolecules. There is consensus that Chagas' disease must be treated in all its periods, since T.cruzi DNA is detected by polymerase chain reaction in chronic cases, even when microscopy is negative. The pharmacological treatment modifies the natural evolution of the disease. It also helps to solve a public health problem, considering that there is a high number of subjects with Chagas' disease. Subjects with chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy with terminal heart failure are the only cases without indication for treatment. Due to the digestive and skin secondary effects of the drugs, treated patients must be controlled clinically and with complete blood counts and hepatic proiles before, during and after the therapy. Approximately 30% of patients will experience secondary effects. Children have a better tolerance to the drugs. Congenital or acquired acute, intermediate and chronic cases should be treated.

Congenital Chagas disease acquired special importance in Chile after the certification of the control of Triatoma infestans and transmission by blood donors affected with Trypanosoma cruzi. In order to establish adequate protocols for intervention and control in infected mother-neonate pairs in endemic zones of Chagas disease, we present partial results (2005-2008) of a pilot project which is being carried out in the Province of Choapa, IV Region, Chile, whose objectives are: determine the current prevalence of the disease in pregnant women, estimate the incidence of vertical transmission of T. cruzi to newborns, determine the lineages of the parasite present in mothers who do and do not transmit the disease, determine the prevalence of Chagas disease in maternal grandmothers of neonates and study placental histopathology. Preliminary results indicated that in this study period, 3.7% of the women who gave birth in the Province have Chagas disease and 2.5% of their newborns were infected. The most frequent T. cruzi genotypes found in mothers studied during pregnancy were TCI and TCIId, either alone or in mixed infections. A high percentage (74.3%) of the grandmothers studied was infected with the parasite. In 29 placentas from mothers with Chagas disease we observed edema, necrosis, fibrinoid deposits and slight lymphoplasmocyte infiltration. In three placentas we found erythroblastosis and in one of them amastigote forms of T. cruzi; this was one of the cases of congenital infection. The evaluation of the diagnostic and control protocols generated will allow us to determine if it has been possible to modify the natural history of vertical transmission of T. cruzi in Chile.

As expert consensus has been arisen about universal antiparasitic treatment for all patients infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, most important drugs licensed for Chagas disease treatment are reviewed: nifurtimox and benznidazol, their mechanisms of action, doses, treatment schedules, adverse effects and contraindications. Two other drugs used for Chagas disease treatment, for which a Chilean experience may be exhibited, are allopurinol and itraconazole. Indications for treatment of Chagas disease in immunocompetent patients and inmunocompromised hosts are detailed. This chapter refers besides to the evaluation and monitoring of antiparasitic therapy in inmunocompromised patients, the availability of drugs and includes various forms facsímiles suggested to perform clinical and laboratory follow up of patients that undergo treatment, indicating the prescribed drug, adverse effects and time of follow up.

Con el consenso de expertos de que todo paciente infectado con Trypanosoma cruzi debiera recibir tratamiento anti-parasitario, se revisan los principales medicamentos aprobados para la enfermedad de Chagas: nifurtimox y benznidazol, sus mecanismos de acción, dosis, duración del tratamiento, efectos adversos y contraindicaciones. Se mencionan otros dos medicamentos utilizados en el tratamiento, en el que existe alguna experiencia nacional, como son allopurinol e itraconazol. Se revisan las indicaciones de tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas en personas inmuno-competentes y las indicaciones de tratamiento en hospederos inmunodeprimidos. Este capítulo finaliza abordando la evaluación y monitorización de la terapia antiparasitaria en inmunodeprimidos, la disponibilidad de medicamentos e incluye facsímiles de formularios sugeridos para realizar el seguimiento clínico y de laboratorio de los pacientes que son sometidos a tratamiento, indicando el fármaco utilizado, los efectos adversos y el tiempo de seguimiento.

In this fifth part of Guidelines for Chagas disease, diagnostic techniques for Trypanosoma cruzi infection in humans are reviewed, the interpretation of laboratory results and an algorithm for laboratory diagnosis in immunocompetent hosts are presented. Chagas disease may be diagnosed by three kinds of techniques: direct, which allow detect the presence of the parasite in different kind of samples; indirect, based on the search of immune specific response against T. cruzi antigens and molecular, which detect parasite genetic material. Direct techniques are utilized mamly in acute phase of disease, as the parasite is present in blood of infected host. These techniques do not require be confirmed by other methods. For chronic undetermined phase and for symptomatic phase it is recommended to use indirect techniques; generally, immunoassay techniques (ELISA) that detect IgG antibodies directed against T. cruzi antigens are performed. As false positive results are possible, a positive or undetermined result must be confirmed by at least another technique (indirect immunofluorescence or indirect hemmaglutination). In Chile, confirmation of infection is performed by the Instituto de Salud Pública National Reference Laboratory or at surrogate centers. Molecular methods may be used to make the diagnosis in acute or chronic phase of infection, with more accuracy in the acute phase, and it is mainly recommended to diagnose vertical transmission of T. cruzi as early diagnosis of congenital infection increases the possibility to cure the sibling and besides it is a good marker to evalúate the effectiveness of treatment.

En esta quinta parte de las Guías Clínicas de enfermedad de Chagas, se revisa el diagnóstico de la infección por Trypanosona cruzi en humanos, la interpretación de los resultados y un algoritmo de diagnóstico de laboratorio en inmunocompetentes. La enfermedad de Chagas se puede diagnosticar por medio de tres tipos de técnicas: directas, que permiten evidenciar la presencia del parásito en diferentes tipos de muestras; indirectas, que corresponden a la búsqueda de anticuerpos específicos contra antígenos de T. cruzi y moleculares, basadas en la detección del material genético del parásito. Las técnicas directas se emplean, de preferencia, en la fase aguda de la enfermedad, donde es posible detectar al parásito circulando en el torrente sanguíneo de la persona infectada. Estas técnicas no requieren ser confirmadas por otros métodos. Para la fase crónica indeterminada y para la fase sintomática es recomendado el uso de las técnicas indirectas; generalmente se emplean técnicas de inmuno ensayo (ELISA) que detectan anticuerpos de tipo IgG contra antígenos de T. cruzi. Por la posibilidad de reacciones falsas positivas, la recomendación es que los resultados positivos o indeterminados sean confirmados con, a lo menos, otra técnica diferente (inmunofluorescencia indirecta o hemaglutinación indirecta). En Chile la confirmación es realizada por el Laboratorio Nacional de Referencia del Instituto de Salud Pública y los centros autorizados por éste. Los métodos moleculares pueden ser empleados para el diagnóstico en fase aguda o crónica, teniendo mayor rendimiento en la primera, y su uso es recomendado principalmente como apoyo para la pesquisa de hijos de madres infectadas en la transmisión transplacentaria de la infección donde el diagnóstico precoz aumenta las posibilidades de cura del niño y es un buen marcador para evaluar el éxito del tratamiento.

In this chapter it is emphasized the importance to guarantee safety and high quality blood transfusions. Besides, the following topics are analyzed: the importance of Trypcmosoma cruzi infection acquired by blood transfusions, the obligatory screening implemented in Chilean blood banks and serological diagnostic techniques used that for, the seroprevalence observed, the importance to confirm results and methods recommended in this purpose and, to notify the donor once the infection is confirmed. In addition a facsímil of a letter used to notify the positive donor is included as guidelines to make advice after, attaching a pro-forma of clinical-epidemiological registration to refer the donor to medical evaluation and treatment

En este capítulo se establece la importancia de otorgar seguridad desde el punto de vista biológico y garantizar transfusiones de calidad y sin agentes infectantes detectables. Se analiza la importancia de la infección por Trypanosoma cruzi a través de transfusión sanguínea, el tamizaje obligatorio que se efectúa en Chile y las técnicas serológicas empleadas, la seroprevalencia encontrada en los bancos de sangre, la importancia de la confirmación y las técnicas empleadas y, la notificación al donante una vez confirmada la infección. Se acompaña de una carta tipo de notificación al donante positivo y una interesante guía para efectuar la consejería que debe seguir a la notificación, adjuntándose un formato de una ficha clínico-epidemiológica para su derivación a médico para estudio y tratamiento

A summary of different kind of immune supressed hosts and the importance of Tryponosoma cruzi infection in this group of patients is presented. Then, most relevant aspects of immune compromised host-parasite interaction are analyzed such as the moment of acquiring the infection, immune compromise level, mechanisms of acquisition the infection and geographic region. Clinical features of primary infection and reactivation of infection in chronic Chagasic patients are described making especial emphasis in solid organ transplant and BMT. Chagas disease in AIDS patients is discussed including its treatment, follow up, monitoring the immune compromise level and prophylaxis

Se revisa someramente los diferentes tipos de inmu-osupresión y la importancia de la infección por Trypa-nosoma cruzi en este tipo de pacientes. Se analizan los aspectos más relevantes de la relación hospedero inmunocomprometido-r. cruzi, tales como el momento de la infección, grado de inmunocompromiso, mecanismos de adquisición de la infección y área geográfica. Se presenta el cuadro clínico en el caso de primoinfección, como así también en la reactivación de la infección en pacientes chagásicos crónicos, haciéndose hincapié en el trasplante de órganos sólidos y precursores hematopoyéticos. Mención especial se hace de la enfermedad de Chagas en pacientes con SIDA, destacando el cuadro clínico y enfatizando en su tratamiento, seguimiento, monitorización del nivel de su compromiso inmunológico y profilaxis

The different stages of Chagas disease in adults: acute, undetermined or latent and chronic phases are described. This document contains guidelines for etiological diagnosis of Chagas disease and its treatment. In chronic phase, as cardiac and digestive system (esophagus and colon) are affected, symptoms and signs, evolution of the disease, laboratory analysis and treatment are described. The following topics in congenital Chagas disease are boarded: its prevalence in pregnant women, the importance of mother phase of disease, repercussions of the parasite transmission to the fetus, the frequency of transmission, how the infection to the fetus is produced, the importance of chronic infection in consecutive pregnancies, and clinical consequences to the newborn infant including symptoms of congenital disease. Concomitance with human immunodeficiency virus is commented. No vertically transmitted Chagas disease in infancy and adolescents has similar clinical manifestations as in adults. Direct and indirect laboratory tests of infection are described and an algorithm for diagnosis and follow up of vertical transmission of Trypccnosoma cruzi is presented

Se describen las distintas etapas de la enfermedad en el adulto: aguda, indeterminada o latente y crónica. Se menciona cómo se realiza el diagnóstico etiológico y la indicación de tratamiento. En la etapa crónica, cuando existe compromiso cardíaco así como también digestivo (esófago o colon), se mencionan los síntomas y signos, la evolución, los exámenes de apoyo diagnóstico y el tratamiento. Se analiza la enfermedad de Chagas congénita desde su prevalencia en la embarazada, la etapa de la enfermedad en la madre, las repercusiones de la transmisión del parásito sobre el producto de la concepción, la frecuencia de la transmisión, cómo se produce la infección del feto, la situación en embarazos sucesivos, hasta las consecuencias sobre el recién nacido, incluyendo la sintomatología cuando éste nace enfermo. Se comenta la concomitancia con la infección por virus de inmunodeficiencia humana. Las formas de presentación no vertical en la infancia y adolescencia no difieren de la enfermedad de Chagas en el adulto. Se menciona el diagnóstico directo e indirecto de la infección y se presenta un algoritmo del diagnóstico y seguimiento de la infección vertical por Tripanosoma cruzi.